Integration of physio-biochemical, biological and molecular approaches to improve heavy metal tolerance in plants.

Heavy metal toxicity hinders plant growth and development by inducing oxidative stress, decreasing biomass, impairing photosynthesis, and potentially leading to plant death. The inherent defense mechanisms employed by plants, including metal sequestration into vacuoles, phytochelation, cell wall metal adsorption and an enhanced antioxidant system can be improved via various approaches to mitigate heavy metal toxicity. This review primarily outlines plants direct and indirect responses to HM stress and the tolerance mechanisms by which plants combat the toxic effects of metals and metalloids to understand the effective management of HMs and metalloids in the soil system. Furthermore, this review highlights measures to mitigate metal and metalloid toxicity and improve metal tolerance through various physio-biochemical, biological, and molecular approaches. This review also provides a comprehensive account of all the mitigative approaches by comparing physio-biochemical, biological and molecular approaches. Finally, we compared all the mitigative approaches used in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous to increase their metal tolerance. Although many studies have compared monocot and dicot plants based on metal toxicity and tolerance effects, comparisons of these mitigative approaches have not been explored.