Sustainable livestock management under anthropogenic pressure: Bridging traditional herding and contemporary conservation in Eurasia's oldest protected area

In some regions of the world, long traditions of herding practices have coevolved with the natural ecosystems, sustaining livelihoods and biodiversity. However, in emerging economies, the populations that have long relied on livestock as their main income are now driving a dramatic increase in livestock numbers on the landscape. This study investigates the impacts of livestock (cattle and horses) and human activities on wild ungulates, Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), wapiti (Cervus canadensis), and wild boar (Sus scrofa), in Bogd Khan Mountain, Mongolia. Protected since the 12th century, this mountain is experiencing escalating anthropogenic pressures. Using camera traps in a random habitat stratified design, we analyzed temporal and spatial overlap between wild ungulates, livestock, and human activity. Livestock and human activities showed varying degrees of temporal overlap with wild ungulates, indicating potential competition and behavioral adaptations. Higher cattle relative abundance was associated with reduced wapiti abundance, suggesting potential competition for resources, whereas higher horse abundance corresponded to increased abundance of both wapiti and roe deer. Human abundance negatively impacted Siberian roe deer, likely due to disturbance, whereas wild boar exhibited resilience to these pressures. Our findings underscore the need for sustainable livestock management to mitigate competition and maintain ecological integrity. Integrating traditional herding practices with modern conservation strategies can enhance wildlife and livelihood resilience. This research highlights the utility of evidence-based approaches to balance biodiversity conservation and resource use in similar socio-ecological systems globally, where traditional livelihoods are increasingly at risk from modern disturbances.