Recent progress in 3D printed piezoelectric materials for biomedical applications

Recent advancements in self-sustaining technology and intelligent materials have facilitated the development of various implantable devices capable of capturing energy for biomedical applications. Remarkably, piezoelectric materials generate electricity from stress, enabling devices to efficiently convert various forms of mechanical energy into electricity with higher output than triboelectric and electromagnetic technologies. The performance assessment and possible biomedical applications of recently developed piezoelectric devices prepared by additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, along with material selection, manufacturing process, difficulties using AM technologies, and piezoelectric device performances. This critical review summarizes the biomedical applications of piezoelectric devices, including human healthcare monitoring, biomolecule sensing, healthcare implants, and bone regeneration, all fabricated using laser-based (vat photopolymerization and powder bed fusion) and laser-free (material jetting and extrusion-based) 3D printing techniques for producing piezoelectric single crystals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials. AM technologies significance in developing and manufacturing complicated, customized piezoelectric devices enables more efficient and biocompatible for implanted medical sensors, tissue engineering, and other health-monitoring systems. Future directions point towards optimizing AM processes for better material properties, exploring new piezoelectric materials, and enhancing the integration of these devices into medical systems for personalized healthcare solutions.