Engineering microcapsules with immune modulatory properties: Applications in cancer, inflammation, and autoimmunity

In recent years, microcapsules have been engineered to regulate the immune system and show promising outcomes in treating cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The precise immunomodulatory capabilities of microcapsules are attributed to their unique core–shell structure. The cavities of microcapsules allow for efficient loading of drugs, antigens, and other immune substances, while the shells provide additional functions such as protecting the core from harsh external environments, enabling surface modification or further loading of immunopotentiators, and facilitating controlled release. This review summarizes recent advances in the development of immunomodulatory microcapsules, encompassing those with intrinsic immunomodulatory properties and those loaded with immunomodulatory molecules. Subsequently, their applications in the immunotherapy of tumor, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases are introduced. It highlights diverse strategies regulating both innate and adaptive immune responses, such as macrophage polarization, regulation of inflammatory factors, and T cell activation. Finally, the opportunities and challenges associated with the clinical use of immunoregulatory microcapsules and prospects for their future role in immunotherapy are discussed. This comprehensive overview aims to provide valuable insights and guidance for the design and application of microcapsules in immune modulation, serving as a critical reference for researchers in advancing personalized medicine and targeted therapies.