Rare earth elements in the age of climate change: Ecotoxicological insights and future directions

Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential in several industries, particularly green technologies, but their increasing use is raising environmental concerns. This review examines the impact of REEs on ecosystems under climate change stressors. A bibliometric analysis revealed a scarcity of ecotoxicological studies, with a major focus on aquatic organisms due to the high vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems. Results indicate that some REEs may induce oxidative stress and disrupt physiological processes. Future research should prioritize interactions between REEs and other contaminants, improve experimental relevance, and increase species diversity to fully understand ecological effects.