The ichnology of White Sands (New Mexico): Linear traces and human footprints, evidence of transport technology?

A travois is crafted from one or more wooden poles and is one of the simplest prehistoric vehicles. Although these devices likely played vital roles in the lives of ancient peoples, they have low preservation potential in the archaeological record. Here we report linear features associated with human footprints, some of which are dated to ∼22,000 years old, preserved in fine-grained sediments at White Sands National Park (New Mexico, USA). Using a range of examples, we identify three morphological types of trace in late Pleistocene sediments. Type I features occur as single, or bifurcating, narrow (depth > width) grooves which extend in planform from 2 to 50 m in length and trace either straight, gently curved or more irregular lines. They are associated with human footprints, which are truncated longitudinally by the groove and are not associated with other animal tracks. Type II examples are broader (width > depth) and form shallow runnels that typically have straight planforms and may truncate human footprints to one side. Type III examples consist of two parallel, equidistant grooves between 250 and 350 mm apart. They trace gently curving lines that can extend for 30+ m. Human footprints are associated with these features and may occur between, and to the side of, the parallel grooves. We review a range of possible interpretations including both human and non-human explanations and conclude that the most parsimonious explanation is that they represent drag marks formed by travois consisting of a single pole or crossed poles pulled by humans, presumably during the transport of resources. As such this unique footprint record may represent one of the earliest pieces of evidence for the use of transport technology.