Multiscale analysis of ecosystem service interactions and driving factors in the Loess Plateau: Implications for ecological management

Clarifying the interaction relationships between ecosystem services (ES) and their driving factors at various scales is crucial for achieving zonal management. This study assessed the changes in five types of ES and the multi-ecosystem service landscape index (MESLI) in the Loess Plateau (LP) from 2000 to 2020, focusing on the trade-offs and synergies among ES at different scales, and identifying ES bundles and their key driving factors. The results showed that: (1) The spatial distribution pattern of ES in the LP remained relatively stable. Over time, water yield and soil conservation services significantly increased, while habitat quality, carbon sequestration, and water purification services showed minimal changes. (2) The trade-offs among ES were primarily concentrated between carbon sequestration, habitat quality, and nitrogen and phosphorus outputs, with these areas mainly distributed in unused land and cropland. In contrast, the most notable synergies were observed between carbon sequestration and habitat quality, primarily found in forested areas. (3) Based on the interactions and scale effects of ES, we identified corresponding ES bundles and determined that precipitation, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and drought index were the key driving factors for most ES bundles. The study provides an important reference for regional zonal management, emphasizing the importance of comprehensively considering the interaction relationships and driving factors of ES at different scales.