Non-target effects of insecticides and herbicides on earwigs.

Conservation biological control in agriculture primarily relies on avoiding pesticides that may harm key natural enemies. In temperate tree fruit crops, the European earwig, Forficula auricularia (L.) has only recently become appreciated as an important predator of economic pests, particularly woolly aphids and pear psylla. Therefore, the non-target effects of orchard pesticides on earwigs are largely understudied. This is particularly true for herbicides, which earwigs are likely to be exposed to due to their foraging behavior moving between the canopy and the ground cover. We tested residues of formulated pesticides (8 insecticides and 7 herbicides) commonly used in tree fruit crops for lethal and sublethal (movement, predation rate) effects on adult female earwigs. Two herbicides, paraquat and glufosinate, and one insecticide, spinetoram, were acutely toxic to earwigs within 72 h. No tested pesticides altered earwigs' movement or resting behavior compared to the control. The insecticides spinosad and cyantraniliprole and the herbicides 2,4-D, glufosinate, halosulfuron, rimsulfuron, and oxyfluorfen reduced earwig predation on green peach aphids. Therefore, these pesticides may reduce earwig predation on pests in orchards. Our results suggest that some pesticides are of greater risk, and thus, should be carefully considered or better timed when used in tree fruit orchards where earwigs are considered for conservation or augmentative biological control.