Geoarchaeological perspective on Mesolithic and Neolithic settlement pattern and transition in the Ganga Plain, India

The Ganga River Basin is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, supporting millions of people since the early Holocene, as evidenced by archaeological evidence of early agricultural practices. Over the past two decades, geological, archaeological and archaeobotanical research has provided important insights into human-environment interactions. However, this evidence is diverse and often fragmented, confined within individual disciplines. There is a need for a transdisciplinary approach to synthesise and contextualise this knowledge to guide future archaeological research in India. In this study, we have reviewed the evidence (≥100 articles) for the technological and cultural transition between Mesolithic and Neolithic populations. By combining spatial analysis of geological, geomorphological, biome and rainfall, archaeological information on burials, floral assemblages, and the distribution of archaeological sites, this study aims to identify changes in land-use practices, agriculture and technology that marked the transition from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers to Neolithic communities. The Mesolithic occupation in the Ganga Plain spanned from ∼12,000 to ∼4000 years BP, while Neolithic settlements occurred between ∼9000 and ∼3400 years BP, clearly indicating the ∼4000 year overlap in cultural adaptation between foraging and farming communities. A total of 269 archaeological sites are included in our study, of which 19 are dated. The spatial analysis suggests that both Mesolithic and Neolithic inhabitants occupied low relief topography (valley and pediplain) associated with Precambrian rock formations, rich in tool-making materials such as quartz and chert. Further analysis revealed that more than 80 % of the sites are concentrated in areas receiving 501–1500 mm of annual rainfall, which falls under the tropical moist broadleaf forest biome. The geographical distribution of these sites therefore reflects a strategic selection of locations to optimise resource availability, supporting both tool-making and agricultural activities, and demonstrating the adaptability of ancient populations in the Ganga Plain.