Analysis of wireless powering modes for nanotransducer-mediated neuromodulation

Nanomaterials offer a promising approach for precise and minimally invasive modulation of neural activity versus traditional implants. This review explores recent advances in various nanotransducer systems that are powered by a remotely deliverable carrier signal (optical, mechanical, or magnetic) and output a neuromodulatory signal (optical, thermal, mechanical, or electrical). Key advantages of individual transduction methods have been highlighted, such as penetration to deeper brain regions, and potential for cell-specific targeting with or without genetic modification of the target tissue. Current challenges and advances are discussed in the context of considerations for clinical translation, which include optimizing transduction efficiency, reducing power requirements, and spatiotemporal stimulation control.