Paternal Depression at Kindergarten Entry and Teacher-Reported Behavior at Age 9 Years

Introduction

This study investigated associations between paternal depression when children were age 5 years and teacher-reported behavioral problems at age 9 years.

Methods

1,422 children in a U.S. cohort study of mostly nonmarital births were studied. Data collection, which is ongoing, began in 1998–2000. Behavioral outcomes were measured in 2009–2010, when the children transitioned to middle school. Analysis was conducted in 2023–2024. Negative binomial regression models of associations between paternal depression and children's behavior and social skill scores and logistic regression models of associations between paternal depression and high (≥1 sSD above mean) or low (≥1 SD below mean) scores were estimated.

Results

Adjusting for child/paternal/family characteristics and maternal depression, paternal depression was associated with a 36% higher oppositional score (IRR=1.36; 95% CI=1.02, 1.82), 37% higher hyperactive score (IRR=1.37; 95% CI=1.11, 1.69) and 25% higher ADHD score (IRR=1.25; 95% CI=1.08, 1.46) but not associated with cognitive problem/inattention score. A similar pattern was apparent for high behavior problem scores, with AORs from 1.78 to 1.85. Paternal depression was associated with an 11% lower positive social skills score and a 25% higher problematic behavior score with similar associations across subscales. Similar patterns were apparent for some high problematic and low positive social skills.

Conclusions

Paternal depression when children transitioned to kindergarten was associated with poorer teacher ratings of behaviors and social skills at age 9 years. These findings suggest a need for interventions that identify and support fathers with depressive symptoms and their children.