Prospects of bovine milk small extracellular vesicles in veterinary medicine

Extracellular vesicles (EV), including exosomes or small EV (sEV) derived from biological fluids, such as milk, have garnered increasing interest in veterinary medicine because of their role in the pathophysiology and understanding of the disease status of the host. Bovine milk serves as a rich source of sEV, containing diverse cargoes of nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, which play a critical role in intercellular communication and regulation of host status. Although it is more difficult to isolate and purify sEV from bovine milk than from human breast milk, challenges persist in enabling the enrichment and analysis of sEV populations, facilitating the elucidation of their functional roles and prognostic potential in cattle diseases. Moreover, owing to their availability, ease of collection, noninvasive nature, and low cost, bovine milk sEV could be an excellent resource for research in veterinary medicine. Furthermore, the development of sEV-based prognosis is promising for improving veterinary medicine through the early detection of diseases and personalized therapeutic strategies. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of bovine milk sEV related to disease monitoring, host physiology, and immune regulation, and highlight their potential applications in advancing veterinary medicine. The prognostic and therapeutic potential of bovine milk sEV could be unlocked by combining knowledge from many fields, creating new opportunities for the development of precise, early prognostic, and focused therapeutic interventions for diseases in veterinary medicine.