Bismuth anode engineering for tomorrow's batteries: A review of cutting-edge strategies

The escalating global demand for sustainable energy technologies has intensified the pursuit of advanced electrochemical energy storage systems. Lithium-ion batteries are widespread but have issues like dendrite growth, scarce resources, and high prices. This has led to the search for other battery options, with bismuth (Bi)-based materials showing promise as anodes due to their low toxicity, high capacity, and versatility with many metal ions. Nevertheless, the practical application of Bi-based anodes is hindered by issues such as crystal structure degradation and anode pulverization during electrochemical processes. This article provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art strategies in Bi modification, focusing on nanostructure engineering, external support structure engineering, alloy engineering, and compound engineering to enhance performance. It discusses the compatibility of Bi-based anodes with different battery technologies, including sodium-ion batteries, potassium-ion batteries, and aqueous rechargeable batteries, highlighting the potential of Bi in advancing battery technology. This review also addresses the challenges in transitioning Bi-based anodes to practical applications, such as anode-electrolyte interface stability and large-scale production feasibility. Advanced design strategies are proposed to guide future research and foster innovative thinking. These strategies offer effective solutions for the commercialization of next-generation high-performance batteries.