Flatland of Graphene's derivatives: Classification, synthesis, mechanisms, role of defects, applications, and prospectives

This comprehensive review explores the fantasy flatland of derivatives of graphene composes of hydrogenated graphene, fluorinated graphene, oxidized graphene, graphyne, graphdiyne, graphane, graphone, graphene nanoplatelets, GQDs, graphene sponge, RGO, graphene nanoribbon, doped graphene, penta graphene, graphenylene, graphenyldiene, biphenylene, net-Graphene, graphene+, and T-graphene based nanoribbons, their history, synthesis strategies, mechanism, the pivotal role of defects that affect the quality of graphene's derivatives, as well as applications and prospects. The derivatives, spanning from hydrogenated and fluorinated graphene to doped graphene and graphenylene, exhibit distinct properties and applications. Our focus then moves to the synthesis techniques employed, providing insights into the methodologies shaping these derivatives. The subsequent analysis of defects, including point defects, vacancies, grain boundaries, and more, highlights the complexities influencing their characteristics. Moreover, we present a detailed review of defective morphologies of the derivatives of graphene using advanced spectroscopy techniques such as ultraviolet, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron, Raman, etc. Besides, this review also highlights their profound influence on material properties, defect consequence, and potential applications useful in different eras of life. These applications span diverse fields, including biosensors, artificial intelligence, military defense, solar energy, and water desalination. In addition, perspectives on the future trajectory of research in this dynamic field are provided, offering a roadmap for the research community to further unlock the potential of graphene derivatives in multidisciplinary fields.