Tin contamination in sediments of Lake Zurich: source, spread, history and risk assessment.

Industrial activities of a silk dyeing factory in Thalwil, on the shore of Lake Zurich, Switzerland, caused extreme Sn contamination of lake sediments. In this study, we determine the contamination source, spread, and age using a multiproxy approach. We used X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) core scanning and further geochemical analyses to assess the contamination spreading and thickness in the sedimentary column. We found elevated Sn levels throughout sediments of Lake Zurich, ranging from 177  $\text{g}{\text{kg}}^{-1}$ in front of the former silk factory to 0.05  $\text{g}{\text{kg}}^{-1}$ at the southeast end (background: ca. 0.006  $\text{g}{\text{kg}}^{-1}$ ). The rapid concentration drop away from the shore suggests quick precipitation of a sparingly soluble inorganic Sn compound, which is confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscope Imaging in tandem with Energy-dispersive XRF spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) data. The Sn XRF profile of a varved core indicates a contamination onset in the early 1890s, a maximum around 1900, and a gradual decrease to low levels in the 1940s. High Sn concentrations in turbidite layers from the deep basin indicate that mass movements physically remobilised Sn. However, in stable conditions, in-situ porewater measurements (conc. < 0.5  $\mu \text{g}{\text{L}}^{-1}$ ) using dialyse plates show little Sn remobilisation into the lake water (0.05  $\text{mg}{\text{a}}^{-1}{\text{m}}^{-2}$ ). The low remobilisation, reducing conditions, and high sulphide contents in the contaminated layers suggest that Sn is firmly bound to the sediments. Combined with the low toxicity of Sn, we conclude that the Sn contamination poses no threat to lake biota or drinking water production.

Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s00015-024-00471-6.