Dynamics and drivers of global secondhand clothing trade: Implications for sustainable energy and circular economy in fashion

The rapid growth of fast fashion has led to a thriving secondhand clothing market over the past decade, presenting both challenges and opportunities for sustainable energy practices in the fashion industry. However, the diverse stances adopted by developing countries on importing secondhand clothing, due to potential environmental threats and impacts on local garment manufacturing, have made international trade relationships increasingly sensitive and fragile. This study employs complex trade network analysis and temporal exponential random graph model to comprehensively analyze the dynamic evolution and driving factors of the global secondhand clothing trade network (GSCTN) from 1995 to 2022, with a focus on its implications for energy consumption and sustainability. The findings reveal consistent growth and significant expansion in the GSCTN, with developed countries like the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany remaining major exporters, while African countries such as Ghana and Kenya have become primary importers. Notably, Africa's import sources have gradually shifted from Europe to Asia, underscoring a trend of regionalization that may impact transportation-related energy consumption. The formation and evolution of the GSCTN are shaped by its endogenous structure, including delayed reciprocity, transitivity, and stability, as well as factors like environmental regulations, industrialization levels, and the fast fashion industry. Moreover, countries with colonial ties or regional trade agreements are more likely to engage in secondhand clothing trade. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers to develop effective strategies that promote sustainable trade practices, support the transition towards a circular economy, and enhance energy efficiency in the fashion industry.