Numerical assessment of ship anchor penetration depth in Baltic Sea Sand: Implications for subsea cable burial

As renewable energy demand increases, protecting subsea cables from ship anchor damage has become essential. This research comprises numerical simulations of the anchor penetration process in Baltic Sea sand (for an AC-14, a Hall and a Spek anchor). We apply a coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) framework and a hypoplasticity constitutive model to analyze the influence of different anchor characteristics on penetration depth and seabed stress distributions. We conducted investigations under high velocities ($v\ge 1$  m/s) with focus on inertial effects only. Furthermore, this study introduces stress circles to visualize a simplified anchor-induced spatial stress distribution in the seabed. Findings show that heavier anchors and slower drag velocities generally result in deeper anchor penetrations. Fluke geometry significantly affects penetration depth, with pointed designs penetrating more deeply. The observed trends align with previous results from centrifuge tests and numerical modeling of ship anchors. This research improves understanding of soil–structure interaction in maritime environments, offering insights for the protection of subsea installations in the Baltic Sea and similar regions.