"ICI ON TRAVAILLE: The role of cooperatives in structuring social relations of production in artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Eastern DRC

This paper explores the organizational dynamics of social relations in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), focusing on the role of mining cooperatives. Drawing on ethnographic research from four week-long visits to Misisi, a key gold site in South Kivu, DRC, in March and April 2022, the study examines the labour regime in ASGM. It highlights how ASGM labour is produced, mobilized and motivated through the socio-economic and cultural frameworks, highlighting mechanisms of labour control and exploitation within the production process. The paper argues that control over ASGM labour power and its exploitation is exerted by a complex interplay of political, economic, and customary institutions, with cooperatives playing a central role in this dynamic. It demonstrates that the current cooperative structures in Misisi derive from both the transition from traditional authority and political ties to resource control, as well as the current formalization process of ASM in Eastern DRC. These cooperatives blur the lines between cooperative and capitalist modes of production, thereby facilitating differentiation, segmentation, and stratification within the gold production chain. This structure not only enables the capture of labour value, but also promotes capital accumulation. The conclusion discusses how this ambiguity may challenge the formalization of artisanal gold labour.