Petrological, mineralogical, carbonate C-O and sulfide S isotope study of the Bayinqinggeli sandstone-hosted uranium deposit in the northern Ordos Basin

Many sandstone-hosted uranium deposits have been discovered in the northern Ordos Basin, including the Bayinqinggeli deposit, exhibiting tremendous potential for uranium exploration and prospecting. This region is characterized by complex fluid activities, yet unknowns or controversies still exist regarding the source and properties of the fluids and their influence on uranium mineralization. In this study, we employed optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF), C-O isotope of calcite, and in situ S isotope of pyrite, to investigate the genesis and evolution of the Bayinqinggeli deposit. Pyrite and calcite are closely associated with uranium minerals, and all exhibit distinct characteristics in rocks of varying grades. In high-grade mineralized rocks, ore-related pyrite, characterized by euhedral and colloidal forms, mainly predated uranium mineralization, evidenced by the extensive coffinite replacement. The mostly negative δ³⁴S values with a broad range (−24.6 ‰ to 23.9 ‰; mean = −4.2 ‰) point to microbial sulfate reduction under restricted conditions. In low-grade and barren rocks, pyrite unrelated to mineralization, mainly as large granular or colloidal cement, shows generally positive δ³⁴S values with a wide range (−49.5 ‰ to 67.4 ‰; mean = 15.3 ‰). This suggests the involvement of both biological and abiological processes during different stages, with the latter possibly associated with deep-sourced fluids. Considering the heterogeneous isotope compositions of sulfur in pyrite and carbon in calcite (δ¹³C ranging from −21.4 ‰ to −4.9 ‰), it can be deduced that the deposit was strongly affected by two types of fluids: (1) surface oxidizing fluids and (2) deep reducing fluids. The mineralizing fluids were derived from oxidizing surface water, which dissolved uranium ions, carbonates, and sulfates from weathered source rocks and during infiltration through the sandstone, resulting in the formation of abundant uranium minerals and associated pyrite and calcite. The presence of low δ¹³C calcite further corroborates the influence of deep hydrocarbon-bearing fluids, which played a protective role in post-ore stage preservation, corresponding to the widespread green alteration in the Lower Zhiluo formation. Overall, the development of sandstone-hosted uranium deposits is a continuous and progressive process, with early-formed mineralization being transformed by late-stage fluid events. Calcite has a significant impact on the formation, development, and extraction of uranium ores in the deposit, protecting the paleo-orebodies against remobilization and remigration. A significant portion of uranium ore is preserved by calcite cementation. Therefore, the careful management of carbonates during in situ leaching is essential for the effective extraction of uranium from the host sandstones.