Conceptualizing collective action and informal women cooperatives in Africa's artisanal and small-scale mining sector: The case of Northern Ghana

This paper examines the dynamics of informal women cooperatives in the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector in Africa, focusing on a qualitative case study of the Talensi mining area in Northern Ghana. Our findings demonstrate that women, through collective agency and action, establish informal women cooperatives in ASM spaces to address the socio-economic and geopolitical challenges they encounter. Two main categories of informal cooperatives formed are shanking cooperatives (for women involved in sieving crushed extracted ore) and sambalga cooperatives (for women digging at the bank of rivers and streams, or uplands in search of gold). Women in licensed and unlicensed ASM zones form groups or associations to promote their welfare, challenge gender norms, advocate for representation and inclusion of voices in mining activities, resist male diggers involved in surface mining, and seek social recognition and economic security. Despite women miners' collective action and agency in pursuing these goals, they still encounter some challenges, particularly related to discrimination and favoritism, social class division among women, strict socio-cultural norms, and conflict with male diggers. In this paper, we highlight that formalization reforms should include gender-sensitive licensing support programs, and transformative gender and inclusive reforms to promote women empowerment in the sector.