Toxicological effects of bisphenol F on growth, antioxidant response, ultrastructure, and microbial properties of the submerged macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Alternative chemicals to bisphenol A (BPA), such as bisphenol F (BPF), have been detected in aquatic environments worldwide and can potentially exert negative effects on aquatic organisms. To evaluate the toxic effects of the exposure of BPF on submerged macrophytes and biofilms, Ceratophyllum demersum L. (C. demersum) was exposed to different concentrations of BPF (1, 5, 10, and 20 mg L^-1). In general, the growth of C. demersum was inhibited, and the chlorophyll content of C. demersum noticeably decreased at high concentrations of BPF (20 mg L^-1). In addition, different concentrations of exposure to BPF induced a certain degree of oxidative stress, as evidenced by increased the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase, as well as increased malondialdehyde concentrations. Furthermore, the scanning electron microscopy results and high-throughput sequencing analysis showed the diversity and structure of the microbial community were altered on the leaf biofilms in the presence of BPF. In addition, the leaf cells of C. demersum showed some damage and variation of organelles and membranes when examined by transmission electron microscopy. The current study is the first to assess the effects of BPF on the physiological and biochemical of C. demersum, these results suggest the understanding of how submerged macrophyte and leaf biofilms respond to environmental stress induced by BPF.