Hydrochemical processes and fluoride enrichment patterns in high-fluoride geothermal water in the Weihe Basin, China

The enrichment of fluoride in the deep geothermal water of the Lantian – Bahe Formation in parts of the Weihe Basin in China is a potential health hazard for the millions of inhabitants of this region. We conducted hydrochemical and hydrogeological analyses of water samples from 31 geothermal wells in the Weihe Basin, with the aims of determining the distribution characteristics, enrichment patterns, hydrochemical processes, and the factors influencing the geochemistry of deep geothermal fluids. We also evaluated the potential health hazards of fluoride ions in these fluids. Our results show that geothermal fluids with high fluoride content are widely distributed in the deep aquifers of the Weihe Basin. The principal hydrochemical types are: HCO₃–Na and SO₄⋅HCO₃⋅Cl–Na. We used hydrodynamic simulation and regression analysis to show that the high proportion of HCO₃^– in the geothermal water facilitates the precipitation of Ca²⁺ and the dissolution of fluorine-bearing minerals. The high temperature, alkaline environment, cation exchange reactions, and dissolution and precipitation processes lead to Ca²⁺ depletion, which facilitates the release of fluoride ions from the surrounding rocks into the geothermal fluids. A human health risk assessment shows that the hazard quotient (HQ) values of geothermal water for adult males, adult females, children, and infants are: 3.96 – 14.41 (median 6.55), 3.32 – 12.08 (median 4.50), 4.63 – 16.84 (median 5.50), and 7.48 – 27.22 (median 9.00), respectively. Infants are the most susceptible to the effects of high fluoride in groundwater due to their physiological characteristics. while the potential health risks of F⁻ for children and adult women/men are relatively low. Therefore, in the process of developing deep geothermal water, it is necessary to prevent it from mixing into shallow drinking water as much as possible. If the fluoride ion content in the shallow water exceeds the standard, it may have an impact on the local environment and residents' health. These findings provide a scientific foundation for the effective management of high fluoride groundwater in the Weihe Basin and analogous regions elsewhere.