Transcription regulation by biomolecular condensates

Biomolecular condensates regulate transcription by dynamically compartmentalizing the transcription machinery. Classic models of transcription regulation focus on the recruitment and regulation of RNA polymerase II by the formation of complexes at the 1–10 nm length scale, which are driven by structured and stoichiometric interactions. These complexes are further organized into condensates at the 100–1,000 nm length scale, which are driven by dynamic multivalent interactions often involving domain–ligand pairs or intrinsically disordered regions. Regulation through condensate-mediated organization does not supersede the processes occurring at the 1–10 nm scale, but it provides regulatory mechanisms for promoting or preventing these processes in the crowded nuclear environment. Regulation of transcription by transcriptional condensates is involved in cell state transitions during animal and plant development, cell signalling and cellular responses to the environment. These condensate-mediated processes are dysregulated in developmental disorders, cancer and neurodegeneration. In this Review, we discuss the principles underlying the regulation of transcriptional condensates, their roles in physiology and their dysregulation in human diseases.