Sustainable timber production in afforestations: Trade-offs and synergies in the provision of multiple ecosystem services in northwest Patagonia

Evaluating ecosystem services (ES) in pine plantations involves a comprehensive analysis of the diverse benefits and drawbacks that these managed ecosystems offer. Such assessments typically consider particularly provisioning, regulating, and supporting services, yet they often overlook important concerns such as biodiversity loss, soil carbon balance, and land-use conflicts. Understanding these dynamics in plantations with different density, age and structure is crucial for sustainable forest management. Our objective was to analyze changes in ES trade-offs and synergies by indirectly quantifying several ES in Pinus ponderosa plantations in a xeric grassland environment in northern Patagonia, Argentina. We assessed changes in soil fertility maintenance, erosion prevention, forage production, firewood production, and timber production across plantation stands under a diverse range of silvicultural managements and the surrounding natural habitat. We found a clear trade-off between indicators of provision services, as increasing timber production diminishes forage and firewood production —two vital land uses in the northern region of Andean Patagonia. Interestingly, we did not observe such trade-offs in supporting services or regulating services, as indicators of soil fertility maintenance and erosion prevention remained stable, without significant declines; higher values were found in intermediate plantation densities and basal area conditions. This suggests that their spatial occurrence does not negatively impact soil nutrient dynamics or the potential for erosion prevention. Conversely, low-density, young, and thinned plantations facilitate coexistence with other land uses such as forage and firewood. Therefore, a strategically planned landscape, incorporating plantations of varying ages and management practices, offers the potential for maximizing all three provision services.