Formation, chemical evolution and solidification of the dense liquid phase of calcium (bi)carbonate

Metal carbonates, which are ubiquitous in the near-surface mineral record, are a major product of biomineralizing organisms and serve as important targets for capturing anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. However, pathways of carbonate mineralization typically diverge from classical predictions due to the involvement of disordered precursors, such as the dense liquid phase (DLP), yet little is known about DLP formation or solidification processes. Using in situ methods we report that a highly hydrated bicarbonate DLP forms via liquid–liquid phase separation and transforms into hollow hydrated amorphous CaCO₃ particles. Acidic proteins and polymers extend DLP lifetimes while leaving the pathway and chemistry unchanged. Molecular simulations suggest that the DLP forms via direct condensation of solvated Ca²⁺⋅(HCO₃⁻)₂ complexes that react due to proximity effects in the confined DLP droplets. Our findings provide insight into CaCO₃ nucleation that is mediated by liquid–liquid phase separation, advancing the ability to direct carbonate mineralization and elucidating an often-proposed complex pathway of biomineralization.