A Systematic Review on Fluoride Contamination in Water Resources of Iran from 2016 to 2023: Spatial Distribution and Probabilistic Risk Assessment (Monte Carlo Simulation).

Because of significant variations and existence of high fluoride (F^-) in some waters, Iran has been considered for various fluoride studies in recent decades. Nevertheless, there is a no updated review on fluoride levels especially including F^- risk assessment. Thus, this systematic review is mainly aimed to evaluate the spatial distribution of F^- content in water sources of Iran using geographic information system (GIS) and conduct the health risk assessment. Besides, the Monte-Carlo Simulation technique with 10,000 iterations was applied for determination of the non-carcinogenic effects of F^- in different exposed groups (infant, children, teenagers, and adults). The results indicated that the maximum and minimum concentrations of F^- content were related to Jazmourian (Roudbar plain) (4.8 mg/L) and Sahneh (0.1 mg/L) provinces, respectively, and F^- content of more than ≅ 19% of the samples exceeds the Iranian standard value (1.5 mg/L). The results showed that the HQ of F^- in all groups were higher than 1 with the order of children > infants > teenager > adults in which children were the vulnerable group to F^- consumption in study area. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor and continuously measure water supplies for fluoride content and control measures, including removal steps, be taken for human risk reduction.