Alcohol ink-modified microfluidic paper-based analytical devices for enhanced white detection in simultaneous determination of multiple water quality indicators

White detection remains a critical limitation in using colorimetry to determine substances with microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs). Here, we introduced a simple, safe alcohol ink-modified µPAD for the straightforward and facile detection of white color in precipitation reactions. Although absolute alcohol ink was found to cause device leakage, dilution of the ink with water was the key to successfully precoat wax-created µPADs. Device utility was demonstrated through simultaneous detection of sulfate, phosphate, and water hardness via precipitation reactions. While phosphate interfered with sulfate detection by Ba²⁺, in situ distance-based quantification of phosphate was implemented. Aside from anions, the modified µPADs could be extended to detect cationic analytes such as total hardness. The limits of detection (LODs) for sulfate, phosphate, and hardness were 0.005 mmol L⁻¹, 0.005 mmol L⁻¹, and 0.5 mmol L⁻¹, respectively, with the linear ranges of 0.01–10.0 mmol L⁻¹, 0.005–1.0 mmol L⁻¹, and 0.001–0.5 mol L⁻¹. The µPADs were applied to real water samples, demonstrating results that were consistent with standard methods at a 95% confidence level. By incorporating white detection, these alcohol ink-modified µPADs offer enhanced versatility for addressing a broader array of analytical challenges in real-world settings.

Graphical Abstract