Ecosystem restoration along the “pattern-process-service-sustainability” path for achieving land degradation neutrality

Ecosystem restoration is critical in attaining land degradation neutrality (LDN) by fostering synergistic relationships between land use patterns, ecological processes, ecosystem services, and sustainable development, i.e., the “pattern-process-service-sustainability” cascading pathway. However, a comprehensive investigation examining the ecosystem restoration required to achieve LDN within the “pattern-process-service-sustainability” framework is yet to be undertaken. This study analysed the challenges associated with ecosystem restoration and proposed strategic approaches to promote restoration efforts aimed at LDN. Overall, various challenges exist encompassing trade-offs or conflicts between degradation and compensation, restoration and protection, area and structure, local and transboundary, as well as social and ecological factors. To address these challenges, potential restoration solutions for implementing LDN entail establishing restoration patterns that integrate conservation with restoration and co-manage plantations with natural ecosystems. Additionally, to foster resilient and self-regulating ecological processes, the focus is on improving ecological structure and harmonizing vegetation restoration with animal management. Enhancing overall ecosystem services requires reducing trade-offs within biophysical thresholds and compensating degraded land with equivalent quality land. Finally, integrating local livelihoods and well-being in ecosystem restoration and promoting transboundary land management are vital for fostering sustainability among social-ecological systems. This article underscores the practical significance of ecosystem restoration along the landscape pattern − ecological process − ecosystem services − sustainability continuum. The insights presented herein provide valuable support for enhancing global initiatives on ecosystem restoration, thereby facilitating the achievement of LDN and the SDGs.