The effectiveness of interventions to manage international wildlife trade

A range of interventions have been established to manage international wildlife trade and protect traded species; however, there is little consensus as to whether, when, and how they are effective. Here, through a comprehensive, systematic review of >8000 articles, we appraise the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions on conservation, biological, and/or socio-economic outcomes. Our systematic review examined four intervention types: “laws and regulations”, “detection and enforcement”, “efforts to reduce threats to species”, and “support local livelihoods”. We find that while laws and regulations were most well-studied, with some reported positive outcomes, over half of articles reported unintended consequences including shifting exploitation and trade routes, increased illegal trade, and socio-economic trade-offs. Detection and enforcement efforts appeared effective in protecting target species but limited for high-value species especially when combined with low reproductive rates. Efforts to reduce threats to species (particularly through area protection) had positive biological impacts, but some socio-economic trade-offs were reported. Evidence on community-based approaches was limited but our review indicated positive synergies occurring between conservation and socio-economic outcomes. Overall, socio-economic outcomes were underrepresented, limiting understanding of potentially important socio-ecological feedbacks. This review furthers understanding of relevant conditions, risks and enabling factors around effectiveness of wildlife trade interventions.