Advances in cartilage tissue regeneration: a review of stem cell therapies, tissue engineering, biomaterials, and clinical trials.

Cartilage tissue, characterized by its limited regenerative capacity, presents significant challenges in clinical therapy. Recent advancements in cartilage regeneration have focused on integrating stem cell therapies, tissue engineering strategies, and advanced modeling techniques to overcome existing limitations. Stem cells, particularly Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), hold promise for cartilage repair due to their ability to differentiate into chondrocytes, the key cells responsible for cartilage formation. Tissue engineering approaches, including 3D models, organ-on-a-chip systems, and organoids, offer innovative methods to mimic natural tissue microenvironments and evaluate potential treatments. MSC-based techniques, such as cell sheet tissue engineering, address challenges associated with traditional therapies, including cell availability and culture difficulties. Furthermore, advancements in 3D bioprinting enable the fabrication of complex tissue structures, while organ-on-a-chip systems provide microfluidic platforms for disease modeling and physiological mimicry. Organoids serve as simplified models of organs, capturing some complexity and enabling the monitoring of pathophysiological aspects of cartilage diseases. This comprehensive review underscores the transformative potential of integrating stem cell therapies, tissue engineering strategies, and advanced modeling techniques to improve cartilage regeneration and pave the way for more effective clinical treatments.