Pathogens transmitted by Ixodes ricinus

Ixodes ricinus is the most important tick vector in central and western Europe and one of the most researched parasites. However, in the published literature on the tick and the pathogens it transmits, conjecture about specific transmission cycles and the clinical significance of certain microbes is not always clearly separated from confirmed facts. This article aims to present up-to-date, evidence-based information about the well-researched human pathogens tick-borne encephalitis virus, louping-ill virus, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and several Babesia species, with a focus on their development in the tick, transmission dynamics and the reservoir hosts that support their circulation in the environment. Borrelia miyamotoi, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Rickettsia helvetica and Rickettsia monacensis, which are much less common causes of disease but may affect immunocompromised patients, are also briefly discussed. Finally, the possible role of I. ricinus in the transmission of Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Bartonella spp. and Spiroplasma ixodetis is reviewed.