Microbial bioremediation techniques of microplastics and nanoplastics in the marine environment

Marine microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) have garnered increasing concern worldwide. To deal with the persistent ecological threat of MNPs, microbial bioremediation is developing rapidly as a promising solution. Here, we analyzed recent studies on biofilms of marine MNPs and diverse marine plastic-degrading microorganisms, such as fungi, bacteria, protists, and mixed consortia. Recent advances in biotechnology particularly metagenomics, enzyme design, and genetic engineering are applied to improve the microbial degradation efficiency of marine MNPs. Considering the intricate interaction between MNPs and the environment, a combination of advanced biotechnology and management of MNPs input into oceans from various sources may pave the way for exploring sustainable solutions to combat global plastic pollution.