Are golf courses good or bad for birds: A synthetic review

For some, golf courses are green oases of nature, while others see only toxic scars on the landscape. This review develops a less dichotomous approach by synthesizing all research on avian use of golf courses. Comparisons with other habitats reveal that golf courses have higher species richness due to attraction of species adapted to human-dominated landscapes, including non-natives. However, species of conservation concern usually disappear altogether from golf courses. Golf courses that support some bird species of conservation concern are those that preserve large tracts of native vegetation. The amount of intact vegetation surrounding a golf course is an important determinant of avian diversity within the course due to dispersal to and from surrounding patches. Most of what is known about reproductive success of golf course birds comes from just one species, eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis), which generally reproduces as well on golf courses as in similar habitats. But this species is not representative of most songbirds because it is pre-adapted for sparsely forested landscapes with high ecological disturbance. Overall, there are no documented examples of golf courses playing a meaningful role in conservation of rare birds. However, widespread avian mortality from pesticides, once a major impact of golf courses, has not been conclusively demonstrated in the 21st century. In conclusion, golf courses are greenspace with a relatively high number and variety of birds and successful reproduction of bluebirds, but their role in reaching conservation goals or serving as valuable breeding habitat for species of concern has not been realized.