Materials innovation and electrical engineering in X-ray detection

X-ray detection is critical for applications in medical diagnosis, industrial inspection, security checks, scientific inquiry and space exploration. Recent advances in materials science, electronics, manufacturing and artificial intelligence have greatly propelled the field forward. In this Review we examine fundamental principles and recent breakthroughs in X-ray detection and imaging technologies, with a focus on the interplay between electrical engineering techniques and X-ray-responsive materials. We highlight two primary approaches: semiconductor-based direct detection and scintillator-based indirect detection. We then discuss innovations such as photon-counting detectors and heterojunction phototransistors and emphasize the critical contributions of electrical engineering in the development of these cutting-edge detectors. Subsequently, we provide an overview of X-ray detection applications, ranging from biomedical imaging and resonant X-ray techniques for material analysis to nanometre-resolution circuit imaging. Finally, the Review summarizes future research directions, which encompass 3D and 4D X-ray imaging sensors, multispectral X-ray imaging and artificial intelligence-assisted medical image diagnosis. This Review examines fundamental principles and recent breakthroughs in X-ray detection and imaging technologies, with a focus on the interplay between electrical engineering techniques and materials science.