Invisible enemies: evaluating human health threats of mosquito repellents through animal studies.

Mosquito-borne diseases continue to pose significant threats to human populations, especially in developing and underdeveloped regions, where access to effective preventive measures remains limited. Mosquito repellents represent a cornerstone in the arsenal against these diseases, providing a barrier against mosquito bites. Mosquito repellents come in various formulations, including topical ointments and commercial vaporizers, with varying compositions. Common constituents include deodorized kerosene (DOK) as a solvent, pyrethroids, amides, essential oils for fragrance, and synergists. Despite their widespread use, the toxicological profiles of these repellents remain inadequately understood, raising questions about their safety in prolonged or excessive exposure scenarios. However, while their efficacy in preventing mosquito-borne illnesses is well-established, concerns persist regarding their potential toxicity to humans and the environment. This review critically examines the existing literature on the toxicity of mosquito repellents, focusing on their adverse effects on human health and environmental sustainability. Through an extensive analysis of available research, this review aims to shed light on the potential health risks associated with mosquito repellents, such as dermatological irritation, respiratory complications, and allergic reactions in humans.