Examining the suitability of the local climate zones (LCZ) framework in informal urban settlements: Insights from Kabul, Afghanistan

To better investigate the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, a standardized framework known as Local Climate Zones (LCZ) has been developed and widely applied to numerous cities. However, cities from least-developed countries with heterogeneous typologies are underrepresented in the LCZ literature. This study assesses the applicability of the LCZ framework in the slum-dominant built-up environment of Kabul. Using a combined method involving GIS and remote sensing, we classified natural and built-type LCZs and analyzed LCZ-LST fluctuations. The analysis revealed that four new subclasses cover 23 % of the built type LCZs: LCZ 3₅ (mid/high-rise buildings within compact lowrise layouts) and LCZ 6₅ (midrise buildings among open lowrise areas) have the lowest LSTs at 34.36 °C and 34.42 °C in July, respectively. In contrast, LCZ 7₃ (two/three-story buildings in lightweight configurations), and LCZ 9_F (sparse buildings on bare soil or sand) have higher LSTs at 37.2 °C and 38.6 °C in July, respectively. These subclasses showed distinct zone parameter thresholds compared to standard LCZs. In most built-type LCZs, Average Building Height (ABH) and Pervious Surface Fraction (PSF) negatively influenced LST, while impervious surfaces and Sky View Factor contributed to higher LST. Based on the findings, LCZ-specified strategies (Vegetation, urban form, and using high-albedo materials) for LST mitigation are proposed. Furthermore, we provide planning, design, and policy recommendations aimed at mitigating urban heat, with potential applicability to other cities facing rapid urbanization and growth of informal settlements. The findings can inform action toward urban climate change adaptation.