Stage dependence of Elton’s biotic resistance hypothesis of biological invasions

Elton’s biotic resistance hypothesis posits that species-rich communities are more resistant to invasion. However, it remains unknown how species, phylogenetic and functional richness, along with environmental and human-impact factors, collectively affect plant invasion as alien species progress along the introduction–naturalization–invasion continuum. Using data from 12,056 local plant communities of the Czech Republic, this study reveals varying effects of these factors on the presence and richness of alien species at different invasion stages, highlighting the complexity of the invasion process. Specifically, we demonstrate that although species richness and functional richness of resident communities had mostly negative effects on alien species presence and richness, the strength and sometimes also direction of these effects varied along the continuum. Our study not only underscores that evidence for or against Elton’s biotic resistance hypothesis may be stage-dependent but also suggests that other invasion hypotheses should be carefully revisited given their potential stage-dependent nature. According to Elton’s biotic resistance hypothesis, species-rich communities are more resistant to plant invasion. Guo et al. examine a dataset of over 12,000 vegetation plots and report that the influence of resident community richness and relatedness on invasion resistance varies in direction and magnitude along the introduction–naturalization–invasion continuum.