Studies on Nigerian cashew nut shell liquid: Greening-up extraction process, chemical composition and cost effectiveness

Extractions of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) have always widely been carried out with non-environmentally friendly solvents. Hence, greener solvents are desired as alternative to currently used solvents. Herein, batch extractions of Nigerian CNSL with greener solvents: ethyl acetate and cyclohexane mixture in different ratios were investigated in hot and cold system and results compared with conventional solvent (petroleum ether). Compositional studies of the extracted CNSL and its isolated components were done with Fourier-Transformed Infrared (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS). Cost effectiveness analysis for the extraction solvents and methods was also investigated. It was revealed that ethyl acetate and ethyl acetate-cyclohexane mixture at cold and hot conditions recorded higher CNSL yields than previous reports even at a lower liquid-to-solid ratio. Chemical composition and component quantity extracted did not significantly change under hot or cold system. The present composition of the Nigerian CNSL contains unusually higher amount of anarcardic acid (79 %) and cardanol (14 %) than ever reported. Additionally, degree of unsaturation in the alkyl chain of the CNSL is in the order triene>monoene>diene in the anarcardic acid and cardanol components of the liquid. Cost effectiveness analysis at a kilogramme scale revealed that the order of greenness of extraction route based on solvent type, energy requirement and condition of extraction is ethyl acetate-solvent cold system> ethyl acetate-hot system> ethyl acetate-cyclohexane-system> cyclohexane system > pet. ether system.