Effects of a problem posing instructional interventions on student learning outcomes: A three-level meta-analysis

Problem posing is increasingly being considered in the field of education, with many experts exploring its positive effects on student learning outcomes. In this case, different perspectives have emerged regarding the impact of the intervention, claiming the overall effect remains uncertain. Therefore, this study aims to explore the effects of a problem posing instructional intervention on student learning outcomes at the cognitive and non-cognitive levels from 2000 to 2023, using a three-level meta-analysis. 32 studies and 4,068 participants were included to compare the classrooms with and without problem posing instructional interventions in elementary to higher education. The results showed a moderate-positive and small positive effect on students cognitive (Hedges' g = 0.681, 95 % CI [0.552, 0.810], p < 0.001) and non-cognitive (Hedges' g = 0.367, 95 % CI [0.113, 0.620], p = 0.003) levels, respectively. Based on the moderator analysis, there were differences in the learning outcomes among students across various task formats. Notably, tasks that included specific information and involved problem posing in context demonstrated significantly better performance. In conclusion, these results indicate the importance of problem posing instructional interventions in promoting student's development and their impact on cognitive and non-cognitive dimensions.