Development and field evaluation of a VR/AR-based remotely controlled system for a two-wheel paddy transplanter

Operating a two-wheel paddy transplanter traditionally poses physical strain and cognitive workload challenges for farm workers, especially during headland turns. This study introduces a virtual reality (VR)/augmented reality (AR)based remote-control system for a two-wheel paddy transplanter to resolve these issues. The system replaces manual controls with VR interfaces, integrating gear motors and an electronic control unit. Front and rear-view cameras provide real-time field perception on light-emitting diode screens, displaying path trajectories via an autopilot controller and real-time kinematic global navigation satellite systems module. Human operators manipulate the machine using a hand-held remote controller while observing live camera feeds and path navigation trajectories. The study found that forward speed necessitated optimization within manageable limits of 1.75–2.00 km h⁻¹ for walk-behind types and 2.00–2.25 km h⁻¹ for remote-controlled systems. While higher speeds enhanced field capacity by 11.67%–12.95%, they also resulted in 0.74%–1.17% lower field efficiency. Additionally, Operators' physiological workload analysis revealed significant differences between walk-behind and remotely controlled operators. Significant differences in energy expenditure rate (EER) were observed between walk-behind and remote-controlled paddy transplanters, with EER values ranging from 8.20 ± 0.80 to 27.67 ± 0.45 kJ min⁻¹ and 7.56 ± 0.55 to 9.72 ± 0.37 kJ min⁻¹, respectively (p < 0.05). Overall, the VR-based remote-control system shows promise in enhancing operational efficiency and reducing physical strain in paddy transplanting operations.