Lithium Pollution and Its Associated Health Risks in the Largest Lithium Extraction Industrial Area in China

Lithium (Li) is an important resource that drives sustainable mobility and renewable energy. Its demand is projected to continue to increase in the coming decades. However, the risk of Li pollution has also emerged as a global concern. Here, we investigated the pollution characteristics, sources, exposure levels, and associated health risks of Li in the Jinjiang River basin, the largest area for Li₂CO₃ production in China. Our results revealed the dominant role of Li extraction activities in the pollution of the river, with over 95% of dissolved Li in downstream river water being emitted from this source. Moreover, the Li concentration in aquatic plants (i.e., water hyacinth) and animals (i.e., fish) significantly increased from upstream to downstream areas, indicating a significant risk to local aquatic ecosystems. More importantly, our study found that local residents were suffering potential chronic noncarcinogenic health risks primarily from consuming contaminated water and vegetables. We also investigated the pollution characteristics of associated elements present in Li ores (e.g., Rb, Cs, Ni, and F^–). By uncovering the remarkable impact of Li extraction activities on the Li content in ecosystems for the first time, our study emphasizes the importance of evaluating Li pollution from Li-related industrial activities, including mining, extraction, and recovery.