Discrete element modeling of distal deformation propagation in thrust wedge and implications for early deformation on northern Tibetan and Iranian Plateaus

Coulomb critical wedge theory predicts that thrust wedges would grow sequentially from the hinterland to the foreland, meaning that distal deformation occurs last. However, in the northern Tibetan and Iranian Plateaus, far away from the southern collision zones, widespread deformation occurs soon after collisions of Arabia and India with Eurasia. Additionally, despite the prevalence of weak lower crust and distal pre-existing faults or weak zones, their relationship to early distal deformation remains poorly understood. For this reason, we run systematic experiments of discrete element models involving basal décollement layer as well as distal pre-existing fault. Our model results reveal that (1) the presence of pre-existing faults is necessary for the occurrence of early distal deformation; (2) the early deformation of distal pre-existing fault is dependent on basal décollement strength and independent of model width; (3) strong basal décollement fails to activate the distal pre-existing faults, instead weak basal décollement can deform them at the early stage; (4) in the presence of weak basal décollement, a slower shortening rate not only facilitates greater shortening absorption by the distal pre-existing fault at the early stage but also results in a more pronounced deviation from sequentially-forward deformation propagation. These findings demonstrate that the preferential reactivation deformations of distal pre-existing faults are mechanically controlled by a weak basal décollement layer. Together with geological and geophysical observations, we suggest that the early deformations of northern Tibetan and Iranian Plateaus may be the result of the reactivation of pre-existing faults due to the existence of weak lower crust soon after collisions.