Polycaprolactone/β-Tricalcium Phosphate Composite Scaffolds with Advanced Pore Geometries Promote Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells' Osteogenic Differentiation.

Critical-sized mandibular bone defects, arising from, for example, resections after tumor surgeries, are currently treated with autogenous bone grafts. This treatment is considered very invasive and is associated with limitations such as morbidity and graft resorption. Tissue engineering approaches propose to use 3D scaffolds that combine structural features, biomaterial properties, cells, and biomolecules to create biomimetic constructs. However, mimicking the complex anatomy and composition of the mandible poses a challenge in scaffold design. In our study, we evaluated the dual effect of complex pore geometry and material composition on the osteogenic potential of 3D printed scaffolds. The scaffolds were made of polycaprolactone (PCL) alone (TCP0), or with a high concentration of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) up to 40% w/w (TCP40), with two complex pore geometries, namely a star- (S) and a diamond-like (D) shape. Scanning electron microscopy and microcomputed tomography images confirmed high fidelity during the printing process. The D-scaffolds displayed higher compressive moduli than the corresponding S-scaffolds. TCP40 scaffolds in simulated body fluid showed deposition of minerals on the surface after 28 days. Subsequently, we assessed the differentiation of seeded bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) over 28 days. The early expression of RUNX2 in the cell nuclei confirmed the commitment toward an osteogenic phenotype. Moreover, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and collagen deposition displayed an increasing trend in the D-scaffolds. Collagen type I was mainly present in the deposited extracellular matrix (ECM), confirming deposition of bone matrix. Finally, Alizarin Red staining showed successful mineralization on all the TCP40 samples, with higher values for the S-shaped scaffolds. Taken together, our study demonstrated that the complex pore architectures of scaffolds comprised TCP40 stimulated osteogenic differentiation and mineralization of hMSCs in vitro. Future research will aim to validate these findings in vivo.