Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Phthalates in Municipal Drinking Water Supply of a Central Indian City

In this study, the occurrence of phthalates in the municipal water supply of Nagpur City, India, was studied for the first time. The study aimed to provide insights into the extent of phthalate contamination and identify potential sources of contamination in the city’s tap water. We analyzed fifteen phthalates and the total concentration (∑₁₅phthalates) ranged from 0.27 to 76.36 µg L⁻¹. Prominent phthalates identified were di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), and di-nonyl phthalate (DNP). Out of the fifteen phthalates analyzed, DEHP showed the highest concentration in all the samples with the median concentration of 2.27 µg L⁻¹, 1.39 µg L⁻¹, 1.83 µg L⁻¹, 2.02 µg L⁻¹, respectively in Butibori, Gandhibaag, Civil Lines, and Kalmeshwar areas of the city. In 30% of the tap water samples, DEHP was found higher than the EPA maximum contaminant level of 6 µg L⁻¹. The average daily intake (ADI) of phthalates via consumption of tap water was higher for adults (median: 0.25 µg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹) compared to children (median: 0.07 µg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹). The hazard index (HI) calculated for both adults and children was below the threshold level, indicating no significant health risks from chronic toxic risk. However, the maximum carcinogenic risk (CR) for adults (8.44 × 10^–3) and children (7.73 × 10^–3) was higher than the threshold level. Knowledge of the sources and distribution of phthalate contamination in municipal drinking water is crucial for effective contamination control and management strategies.

Graphical Abstract