Seasonal variation, source identification, and health risk assessment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ulsan, South Korea

Gaseous and particulate 21 PAHs were monitored at a residential site in Ulsan, South Korea, over three seasons (December 2013–August 2014). The mean concentrations of Σ₂₁ PAHs were highest in winter (16.2 ± 8.2 ng/m³), followed by spring (8.37 ± 4.53 ng/m³) and summer (6.23 ± 2.53 ng/m³). The mean gaseous concentration of Σ₂₁ PAHs (7.39 ± 4.39 ng/m³) was 2.7 times higher than that of particulate PAHs (2.70 ± 3.38 ng/m³). To identify the sources of PAHs (both types of sources and their areas), diagnostic ratios, principal component analysis, and concentration-weighted trajectory (CWT) were used. The results showed that pyrogenic sources (e.g., coal combustion) were the primary emission sources of PAHs in winter and spring. In summer, the influence of both coal and heavy oil combustion was dominant, suggesting that PAHs could be transported from industrial areas of Ulsan (e.g., petrochemical and nonferrous industrial complexes) by seasonal winds. Regarding emission source areas, the CWT analysis revealed that in winter and spring, PAHs in Ulsan could be attributed to emissions from regional areas, e.g., China and North Korea. The PAH concentrations were also used to assess the health risks associated with the inhalation of these compounds for adults aged 18–70. The results showed that the cancer risks from Σ₁₉ PAHs and Σ₁₃ PAHs did not exceed the guideline set by the US EPA (10⁻⁶), indicating no cancer risks for this target group. However, it is worth noting that certain PAHs, which are not listed as priority PAHs by the US EPA, make significant contributions to the benzo[a]pyrene equivalent and the associated cancer risks. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate not only the priority PAHs but also other PAH species to fully evaluate their effect on human health.