Phylogeny, biogeography and ecological diversification of New Caledonian palms (Arecaceae).

Background and aims: The geographical origin and evolutionary mechanisms underpinning the rich and distinctive New Caledonian flora remain poorly understood. This is attributable to the complex geological past of the island and to the scarcity of well-resolved species-level phylogenies. Here, we infer phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of New Caledonian palms, which comprise 40 species. We use this framework to elucidate the biogeography of New Caledonian palm lineages and to explore how extant species might have formed.

Methods: A phylogenetic tree including 37 New Caledonian palm species and 77 relatives from tribe Areceae was inferred from 151 nuclear genes obtained by targeted sequencing. Fossil-calibrated divergence times were estimated and ancestral ranges inferred. Ancestral and extant ecological preferences in terms of elevation, precipitation and substrate were compared between New Caledonian sister species to explore their possible roles as drivers of speciation.

Key results: New Caledonian palms form four well-supported clades, inside which relationships are well resolved. Our results support the current classification but suggest that Veillonia and Campecarpus should be resurrected and fail to clarify whether Rhopalostylidinae is sister to or nested in Basseliniinae. New Caledonian palm lineages are derived from New Guinean and Australian ancestors, which reached the island through at least three independent dispersal events between the Eocene and Miocene. Palms then dispersed out of New Caledonia at least five times, mainly towards Pacific islands. Geographical and ecological transitions associated with speciation events differed across time and genera. Substrate transitions were more frequently associated with older events than with younger ones.

Conclusions: Neighbouring areas and a mosaic of local habitats shaped the palm flora of New Caledonia, and the island played a significant role in generating palm diversity across the Pacific region. This new spatio-temporal framework will enable population-level ecological and genetic studies to unpick the mechanisms underpinning New Caledonian palm endemism.