Does trapped O2 form in the bulk of LiNiO2 during charging?†

LiNiO₂ remains a critical archetypal material for high energy density Li-ion batteries, forming the basis of Ni-rich cathodes in use today. Nevertheless, there are still uncertainties surrounding the charging mechanism at high states of charge and the potential role of oxygen redox. We show that oxidation of O²⁻ across the 4.2 V vs. Li⁺/Li plateau forms O₂ trapped in the particles and is accompanied by the formation of 8% Ni vacancies on the transition metal sites of previously fully dense transition metal layers. Such Ni vacancy formation on charging activates O-redox by generating non-bonding O 2p orbitals and is necessary to form vacancy clusters to accommodate O₂ in the particles. Ni accumulates at and near the surface of the particles on charging, forming a Ni-rich shell approximately 5 nm thick; enhanced by loss of O₂ from the surface, the resulting shell composition is Ni^2.3+_1.75O₂. The overall Ni oxidation state of the particles measured by XAS in fluorescence yield mode after charging across the plateau to 4.3 V vs. Li⁺/Li is approximately +3.8; however, taking account of the shell thickness and the shell Ni oxidation state of +2.3, this indicates a Ni oxidation state in the core closer to +4 for compositions beyond the plateau.