Emerging frontiers in surgical training: progress in 3D printed gel models

With the increasing complexity and difficulty of surgical procedures, there is an urgent need for empirical and high-fidelity surgical teaching tools. Whereas in the past, teaching tools included cadavers and animals, today, with the development of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, the creation of patient-specific organ models is possible. This technology provides an effective solution for preoperative rehearsal, thus providing surgery residents with a more realistic simulation environment. This study aimed to provide an overview of the use of personalized 3D printing in various types of surgery through a scoping review, outline their bottlenecks, and provide an outlook. Significant advancements have been made in 3D-printed gel organ models for surgical applications. However, future advancements require interdisciplinary collaborations, medical–engineering integration and novel techniques. Addressing challenges in preservation, instrument response, ultrasound performance and mechanical properties is crucial. Enhancing these aspects will improve the capabilities of organ models, benefiting both medical practitioners and patients.