The Political and Social Determinants of Football Hooliganism in Central Europe in the Interwar Period

AbstractDuring the inter-war period (1918-1939) football in Central Europe developed highly successfully, second only to Great Britain – and it was in Central Europe that the international club competition the Mitropa Cup was established. This became the forerunner of later tournaments played under the auspices of UEFA. The rapid development of football also brought with it negative phenomena associated with football matches, mainly the problem of hooliganism. The consolidation of football through the Mitropa Cup has contributed to the spread of the hooligan phenomenon in the region and gave it additional boost. Central European stadiums became social outlets wherein it was possible express local and national sentiments, resentments, prejudices, and stereotypes.Keywords: FootballfansHooligansCentral EuropeMitropa Cup Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Alessandro Dal Lago, Descrizione di una battaglia. I rituali del calcio [Description of a Battle. The rituals of football] (Bologna: il Mulino, 1990), 166.2 Ibid; Paul Dietschy, Storia del calcio [History of Football] (Vadano al Lambro: Paginauno, 2014), 122–9.3 Some scholars have traced the birth of sports tourism back to the 1934 World Cup in Italy. See Dietschy, Storia del calcio, 156.4 Roman Horak and Wolfgang Maderthaner, Mehr als ein Spiel. Fußball und populare Kulturen im Wien der Moderne [More than just a game. Football and Popular Cultures in Modern Vienna] (Wien: Löcker, 1997).5 See Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, Quest for Excitement. Sport and Leisure in the Civilizing Process (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Eric Dunning, Patrick J. Murphy and John Williams, The Roots of Football Hooliganism: An Historical and Sociological Study (London: Routledge, 1988); Robert W. Lewis, ‘Football Hooliganism in England before 1914: A Critique of the Dunning Thesis’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 13, no. 3 (1996): 310–39; Patrick Murphy, Eric Dunning and Joseph Maguire, ‘Football Spectator Violence and Disorder before the First World War: A Reply to R.W. Lewis’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 15, no. 1 (1998): 141–62; Martin Johnes, ‘Hooligans and barrackers: Crowd disorder and soccer in South Wales, c. 1906-1939’, Soccer & Society 1, no. 2 (2000): 19–35. For a long-term analysis, see John Williams, Eric Dunning, and Patrick Murphy, ‘The rise of the English soccer hooligan’, Youth and Society 17, no. 4 (1986): 362–80.6 Horak and Maderthaner, Mehr als ein Spiel; Matthias Marschik and Doris Sottopietra, Erbfeinde und Haßlieben. Konzept und Realität Mitteleuropas im Sport [Eternal Enemies and Hated Lovers. Concept and reality of Central Europe in sport] (Münster: LIT, 2000), 250–84; Szymon Bieniuk, ‘O piłkarskich trybunach Lwowa lat 30. XX wieku na łamach prasy sportowej: Wybrane kwestie’ [The football stands of 1930s Lviv in the sports press: Selected issues], Prace Naukowe Akademii im. Jana Długosza w Częstochowie. Kultura Fizyczna XVII, no. 1 (2018): 23–56; Rudolf Oswald, „Fußball-Volksgemeinschaft”. Ideologie, Politik und Fanatismus im deutschen Fußball 1919-1964 [Football-People’s Community. Ideology, Politics and Fanaticism in German Football 1919-1964] (Frankfurt/Main–New York: Campus Verlag, 2008); Simon Martin, Calcio e fascismo: lo sport nazionale sotto Mussolini [Football and Fascism. The National Game under Mussolini] (Milano: Mondadori, 2004).7 George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers. Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); George L. Mosse, The Image of Man. The Creation of Modern Masculinity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 47; Dietschy, Storia del calcio, 128–9.8 Elias and Dunning, Quest for Excitement, 43.9 Pierre Lanfranchi, ‘La première guerre mondiale et le développement du football en Europe: l’exemple italien’ [The First World War and the development of football in Europe: the Italian example], in Le football dans nos sociétés. Une culture populaire 1914-1998, ed. Yvan Gastaut and Stéphane Mourlane (Paris: Autrement, 2006), 144; Dietschy, Storia del calcio, 169–72.10 Tony Judt, ‘The Rediscovery of Central Europe’, in Eastern Europe… Central Europe… Europe, ed. Stephen R. Graubard (New York: Routledge, 1991), 23–54.11 György Gyarmati and Zoltán Szasz, ‘Reformpläne für die Umgestaltung der osteuropäischen Region’ [Reform plans for the transformation of the Eastern European region], in Mitteleuropa – Idee, Wissenschaft und Kultur im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Richard G. Plaschka, Horst Haselsteiner and Anna M. Drabek (Wien: VÖAW, 1997), 1–5; Karel Bartosek, ‘Probleme einer Definition’ [Problems of a Definition], in Europa und Mitteleuropa? Eine Umschreibung Österreichs, ed. Andreas Pribersky (Wien: Sonderzahl, 1991), 109–12; Chris Cook and John Stevenson, Leksykon historii Europy w XX wieku: 1900-2004 [Lexicon of European History in the 20th Century] (Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza, 2004), 407; Friedrich Naumann, Mitteleuropa [Central Europe] (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1915); Janusz Pajewski, Mitteleuropa. Studia z dziejów imperializmu niemieckiego w dobie pierwszej wojny światowej [Central Europe. Studies in the history of German imperialism in the era of the First World War] (Poznań: Instytut Zachodni, 1959).12 Sabine Stadler, ‘Der Mitteleuropamythos und seine unterschiedlichen Rezeptionen’ [The Central European Myth and its Different Receptions], in Österreich auf dem Weg zur 3. Republik, ed. Österreichische Assoziation Kritischer Geograph/inn/en (Wien: Promedia, 1992), 99–102; Horst Haselsteiner, ‘Mitteleuropa und das Gestaltungsprinzip Föderalismus’ [Central Europe and the structural principle of Federalism], in Mitteleuropa-Konzeptionen in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed. Richard G. Plaschka et al. (Wien: VÖAW, 1995), 21–5.13 John Bale, ‘Playing at Home. British football and a sense of place’, in: British Football and Social Change: Getting into Europe, ed. John Williams and Stephen Wagg (Leicester: Continuum, 1991), 131.14 See Bruno Maida, La Direzione generale della stampa italiana [The General Directorate of the Italian Press], in La stampa del regime 1932-1943. Le veline del Minculpop, ed. Nicola Tranfaglia (Milano: Bompiani, 2005), 29–55; Ignác Romsics, Hungary in Twentieth Century (Budapest: Osiris, 1999), 181.15 David Rowe, Popular Cultures. Rock Music, Sports and the Politics of Pleasure (London: Sage, 1995), 140.16 Dariusz Wojtaszyn, Kibice w socjalizmie. Trybuny piłkarskie w NRD – studium historyczno-społeczne [Fans in Socialism. Football stands in the GDR – a social-historical study] (Wrocław: ATUT, 2013), 65–83.17 Antonio Roversi, Calcio, tifo e violenza: il teppismo calcistico in Italia [Football, cheering and violence: football hooliganism in Italy] (Bologna: il Mulino, 1992).18 ‘L’inospitale campo di Zagabria. Anche i viennesi percossi dal pubblico’ [The hostile Zagreb pitch. Even the Viennese were attacked by the crowd], Il Corriere della Sera, August 31, 1927, 5.19 ‘Un match di calcio internazionale finito a bastonate e sassate’ [An international match which ended with sticks and stones], La Stampa, August 31, 1927, 6.20 See Stefano Santoro, L’Italia e l’Europa orientale. Diplomazia culturale e propaganda 1918-1943 [Italy and Eastern Europe: Cultural diplomacy and propaganda 1918-1943] (Milano: FrancoAngeli, 2005), 136–7; H. James Burgwyn, Empire on the Adriatic. Mussolini’s Conquest of Yugoslavia 1941-1943 (New York: Enigma, 2005), 6–10.21 ‘Come si svolsero gli incidenti di Zagabria’ [How the Zagreb incidents happened], La Gazzetta dello Sport, May 12, 1926, 3.22 ‘La vittoriosa e disgraziata tournée della Juventus a Zagabria’ [The successful and unfortunate tour of Juventus in Zagreb], La Gazzetta dello Sport, May 14, 1926, 4.23 See ‘La Coppa d’Europa di calcio’ [The European football cup], Il Corriere della Sera, July 7, 1929, 2; ‘Slava b. Juventus: 3 a 0’ [Slavia 3:0 Juventus], Il Littoriale, July 8, 1929, 4.24 ‘Wien kann auf die Admira stolz sein’ [Vienna can be proud of Admira], Sport-Tagblatt, August 22, 1927, 1; ‘Die Prager Slavia und Rapid verbleiben im Cup’ [Prague Slavia and Rapid remain in the Cup], Arbeiter-Zeitung, August 22, 1927, 6.25 Star, August 30, 1927, 14.26 ‘Le prime partite degli squadroni cecoslovacchi’ [The first matches of the Czechoslovakian teams], La Gazzetta dello Sport, September 1, 1927, 6.27 ‘Zwei Niederlagen Österreichs’ [Two Austrian defeats], Sport-Tagblatt, September 10, 1928, 1.28 ‘Locarnogeist im Sport’ [Locarno spirit in sport], Sport-Tagblatt, September 14, 1928, 1.29 ‘Az Ujpest csak két góllal vesztett Prágában a Spártával szemben’ [Ujpest lost to Sparta in Prague by only two goals], Budapesti Hirlap, July 4, 1929: 10; ‘A Sparta kiesése miatt dühöngő tömeg a mérkőzés után összerugdalta a magyar játékosokat és vezetőket’ [After the match the Hungarian players and managers were beaten by the crowd because the Sparta's elimination], Sporthirlap, July 4, 1929, 3.30 ‘Sparta batte Ujpesti: 2 a 0’ [Sparta 2:0 Ujpest], Il Littoriale, July 5, 1929, 2.31 ‘In ambiente ostile, con arbitraggio contrario il Bologna deve cedere al Rapid per 4 a 1’ [In a hostile context, with adverse refereeing, Bologna had to surrender to Rapid 4-1], Il Littoriale, July 9, 1934, 3; ‘Sensationsveranstaltung mit Krawall’ [Sensational event with riot], Sport Tagblatt, July 9, 1934, 1.32 ‘Rapid – Bologna: 4-1’ [Rapid 4:1 Bologna], La Gazzetta dello Sport, July 9, 1934, 3.33 ‘Volkssport. Riesenkrawall im Stadion’ [Mass sport. Huge riot in the stadium], Kronen Zeitung, July 9, 1934, 10.34 Report from the Italian Legation in Vienna to the Foreign Ministry, July 9, 1934, Box 908, Cabinet of the Minister and General Secretariat (1923-1943) (G), Italian Foreign Ministry archives (hereafter ASDMAE), Rome, Italy.35 ‘Elfajulak a Középeurópai Kupa mérkőzések’ [The Central European Cup matches are getting out of hand], Budapesti Hírlap, July 10, 1934, 12; ‘Telesna Vychova’, Lidove Noviny, July 8, 1934, 11.36 ‘Admira – Genova 2-2 [Admira 2:2 Genova], Il Lavoro, July 5, 1937, 5.37 Leo Schidrowitz, Geschichte des Fußballsportes in Österreich [History of football in Austria] (Wien: R. Traunau Verlag, 1951), 168.38 Letter, Quaestor of Genova to Chief of police, July 8, 1937, Folder 26/b, 1937, Annual Categories 1879-1945, General Affairs and Confidentiality Division, General Archives (AG), General Directorate of Public Security (1861-1981) (DGPS), Ministry of the Interior (MI), Central archive of State (hereafter ACS), Rome, Italy.39 Letter, Chief of Police to Prefecture of Genoa and Venice, July 10, 1937, b. 26/b, 1937, Annual Categories 1879-1945, AG, DGPS, MI, ACS.40 Marschik and Sottopietra, Erbfeinde, 280–1.41 ‘A Sparta lett a meghamisitott középeurópai küzdelmek győztese’ [Sparta is the winner of the rigged Central European cup], Nemzeti Sport, November 14, 1927, 2.42 ‘Il cavalleresco contegno delle folle italiane e le intemperanze dei pubblici d’Oltralpe’ [The chivalrous behaviour of the Italian crowds and the outrageousness of the public the other side of the Alps], Il Corriere della Sera, November 20, 1927, 5; ‘A bécsi közönség kövel dobálta a Sparta játékosait’[Vienna crowd throws stones at Sparta players], Az Est, November 15, 1927, 15; ‘Osztrák-cseh konfliktus fenyeget a Középeurópai Kupa döntőjének botránya miatt’ [Austro-Czech conflict over the scandal of the Central European Cup final], Sporthirlap, November 17, 1927, 5.43 ‘Echi della Coppa dell’Europa Centrale’ [Central European Cup Echoes], La Gazzetta dello Sport, November 21, 1927, 4.44 ‘Der Mitteleuropa-Cup der Professionals – ein Riesenskandal’ [The Central Europe Cup of the Professionals – a huge scandal], Arbeiter-Zeitung, November 14, 1927, 6. The critical account of the social-democratic Arbeiter -Zeitung was to some extent linked to the political nature of the newspaper and their criticism of professional football and its accompanying capitalist mass culture.45 ‘Sparta vitezem Stredoevropeskeho poharu’ [Sparta wins the Central European Cup], Lidove Noviny, November 14, 1927, 4.46 Ibid.47 Marschik and Sottopietra, Erbfeinde, 222–4.48 Josef Huber, Die Geschichte des Wiener Fußballs 1923-1998. 75 Jahre Wiener Fußball-Verband [The History of Vienna Football 1923-1998. 75 years of the Vienna Football Association] (Wien: WFB, 1998), 53.49 Marschik and Sottopietra, Erbfeinde, 270–1.50 R. Keifu, ed., La Coupe des Nations. Fußball-Europa-Turnier 1930 in Genf [The Nations Cup. 1930 European Football Tournament in Geneva] (Kassel: Agon Sportverlag, 1993), 33.51 ‘Le tournoi international de football de Genève’ [The Geneva International Football Tournament], La Liberté, July 7, 1930, 3; ‘Slavia bat First-Vienna 3 à 1’ [Slavia 3:1 First-Vienna], Feuille d’avis de Neuchâtel, July 7,1930, 5.52 See Miklós Zeidler, Ideas on Territorial Revision in Hungary 1920-1945 (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 2007).53 ‘Ferencváros – Ripensia 5:4’ [Ferencváros 5:4 Ripensia], Nemzeti Sport, July 11, 1938, 1.54 ‘A második Ferencváros – Ripensia mérkőzés’ [The second Ferencváros – Ripensia match], Nemzeti Sport, July 18, 1938, 3.55 Marschik and Sottopietra, Erbfeinde, 213.56 ‘Hungária – Beogradski SK 4:0’ [Hungária 4:0 Beogradski SK], Nemzeti Sport, August 29, 1927, 1.57 Ibid.58 ‘Spielbericht Polonia Warschau – Hakoah Wien’ [Match report Polonia Warsaw – Hakoah Vienna], Austriasoccer.at, http://www.austriasoccer.at/data/spiele/1924/19240723polohako1.htm (accessed April 21, 2022).59 Adam Tycner, ‘Wojsko, szable i pistolety na boiskach – wojny kiboli w II RP’ [Military, sabres and guns on the playing fields – football fan wars in the Second Republic], Historia. Do rzeczy.pl, February 21, 2019, https://superhistoria.pl/dwudziestolecie-miedzywojenne/94328/przedwojenni-polscy-kibice-pilka-nozna-w-ii-rp.html (accessed April 21, 2022).60 ‘Spielbericht Polonia Warschau - Hakoah Wienʼ Austriasoccer.at, http://www.austriasoccer.at/data/spiele/1924/19240723polohako1.htm (accessed April 21, 2022).61 These are the results of a study conducted at the Österreichisches Staatsarchiv (Archiv der Republik, Auswärtige Angelegenheiten 1918-2005: Österreichische Vertretungsbehörden im Ausland, Neues Politisches Archiv, Bundeskanzleramt) and at Archivio Centrale dello Stato (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Ministero dell’Interno), Archivio storico diplomatico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (Gabinetto del Ministro e segreteria generale), and Magyar Nemzeti Levéltár (Külügyminisztériumi levéltár).62 ’La Juventus argina con fatica l’insistente e violenta offensiva dello Sparta ma esce battuta per 1-0 dall’emozionante incontro’ [Juventus only just contains Sparta's insistent and violent attack, but ends up defeated 1-0 in the exciting match], Il Littoriale, July 23, 1931, 1.63 ‘La Juventus cede allo Sparta per 1 a 0 in un durissimo incontro’ [Juventus succumbs to Sparta 1-0 in a hard-fought match], La Stampa, July 23, 1931, 4.64 ‘Slavia – Juventus: 4-0’ [Slavia 4:0 Juventus], La Gazzetta dello Sport, July 7, 1932, 3.65 ‘Deplorevoli manifestazioni contro la squadra italiana’ [Deplorable behaviour towards the Italian team], Il Popolo d’Italia, July 7, 1932, 8.66 Report from Ministry of Foreign Affair to Prime Minister's Office, July 9, 1932, folder 6102, Years 1931-1933, Files by categories, General Affairs (AG), Cabinet (G), Prime Minister's Office (hereafter PCM), ACS. On this event see Martin, Calcio e fascismo, 226–8.67 ‘Energico atteggiamento della F.I.G.C. dopo gli incidenti di Praga’ [Vigorous approach of the F.I.G.C. after the incidents in Prague], Il Corriere della Sera, July 8, 1932, 4.68 From Ministry of Foreign Affair to Prime Minister's Office, July 9, 1932, folder 6102, Years 1931-1933, Files by categories, AG, G, PCM, ACS.69 From the Prague’s Legation to Ministry of Foreign Affair, July 14, 1932, fasc. III-6/d, folder 203 (1932), Box 66, Archive of Ministry of Foreign affair, K: Bourgeois years, Hungarian National Archive, Budapest, Hungary; Paul Dietschy, ‘Creating Football Diplomacy in the French Third Republic, 1914-1939’, in Soccer Diplomacy: International Relations and Football Since 1914, ed. Heather L. Dichter (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2020), 39–40.70 Letter from CONI to Prime Minister's Office, September 22, 1932, folder 6102, Years 1931-1933, Files by Category, AG, G, PCM, ACS.71 ‘Dopo gli incidenti di Praga’ [After the Prague incidents], La Stampa, July 8, 1932, 4.72 ‘A Slavia nem áll ki Torinóban, ha Cesarini játszik’ [Slavia will not play in Turin if Cesarini plays], Nemzeti Sport, July 8, 1932, 4.73 ‘Il ritorno a Torino della «Juventus»’ [The return of ‘Juventus’ to Turin], La Stampa, July 8, 1932, 4.74 ‘Energico atteggiamento della F.I.G.C. dopo gli incidenti di Praga’, Il Corriere della Sera, July 8, 1932, 4.75 ‘La Federazione punisce Cesarini e chiede garanzie ai Cecoslovacchi’ [Federation sanctions Cesarini and demands guarantees from Czechoslovaks], Il Corriere della Sera, July 10, 1932, 4.76 ‘Lo Slavia si ritira dopo due “goals” della Juventus’ [Slavia abandons the match after two Juventus ‘goals'], Il Corriere della Sera, July 11, 1932, 4.77 ‘Juventus – Slavia (primo tempo) 2-0’ [Juventus 2:0 Slavia (first half)], La Gazzetta dello Sport, July 11, 1932, 5.78 Ibid.79 Ibid.80 ‘Slavia neprečkala besneni italskeho obecenstva a hraču’ [Slavia did not survive the fury of the Italian public and players], Lidove Noviny, July 11, 1932, 5.81 Ibid.82 ‘Volgarità e menzogne dalla stampa di Praga’ [Vulgarities and lies from the Prague press], La Gazzetta dello Sport, July 13, 4. 1932; ‘Le belve e la gabbia’ [The beasts and the cage], Il Littoriale, July 12, 1932, 4.83 ‘Non c’è peggior ceco di chi non vuol vedere’ [There is no worse blind Czech than one who does not want to see], Il Littoriale, July 12, 1932, 6.84 ‘Dimostrazioni antifasciste all’arrivo della «Slavia»’ [Anti-fascist demonstrations at the arrival of ‘Slavia'], La Stampa, July 13, 1932, 1.85 Report from Ministry of Foreign Affair to Prime Minister's Office, July 13, 1932, folder 6102, years 1931-1933, files by category, AG, G, PCM, ACS.86 ‘Ist der ganze Cup das wert?’ [Is the whole Cup worth it?], Sport-Tagblatt, July 14, 1932, 1.87 Report from the Italian Legation in Budapest to the Foreign Ministry, July 2, 1935: 1, box 808, G, ASDMAE.88 Ibid.89 Ibid.90 F. Werner, ‘Juventus – Hungaria 3-1’ [Juventus 3:1 Hungária], La Stampa, July 1, 1935, 4.91 ‘Mitropa-Cup als Friedensstörer’ [Mitropa Cup as a peace breaker], Neues Wiener Journal, July 10, 1934, 12.92 ‘Minden a sportszerűség’ [It's all about sportsmanship], Nemzeti Sport, September 14, 1939, 1; Letter from CONI to the Ministry of Interior, August 31, 1938, Box 35, Massime, Permanent categories, DGPS, MI, ACS.Additional informationFundingThis study is funded by The Bekker programme of the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange.Notes on contributorsDariusz WojtaszynDariusz Wojtaszyn is Professor of Modern History and Head of the Centre for Research on the History of German and European Sport at the Willy Brandt Center for German and European Studies of the University of Wroclaw (Poland). In 2015 and 2021/2022 he was a visiting professor at the University of Vienna. His research areas concern German-Polish relations after World War II, sport history, European history memories, international textbook research.Lorenzo VenutiLorenzo Venuti, PhD, is postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Florence. He is a member of the Inter-University Centre for Hungarian and Central and Eastern European Studies in Italy (CISUECO). His research areas concern sport history, political uses of history, and anticommunism in Italy during Cold War.