Conclusion

Political communication around the world has evolved significantly through social media. Changes are apparent both in terms of social practices and core technological tools: these include the infrastructure upon which political communication occurs, the salience of its effects, and the habits of its practitioners. Several of these advancements have benefited global democracy. Platforms such as Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook have been at the heart of communication and organization during pivotal moments of popular activism since 2010: the Arab Spring, the Occupy Movement, and the Umbrella Protests in Hong Kong among them (Howard, 2010; Bennett & Segerberg, 2013; Woolley, 2016). These same sites have been, increasingly over the last five years, normalized for political control by the powerful. Each of the chapters in this collection highlight the ways that digital media have been co-opted in efforts to manipulate public opinion for various means from the usage of bot armies.